Enlightened Forge: Scientific Marvels and Literary Legacy of Industrial Revolution

Summary

The Industrial Revolution was a seismic shift in the fabric of human history, a period where steam and steel forged a new world. This era of relentless innovation, beginning in the late 18th century, propelled societies from agrarian roots into the throes of industrial might. It was a time when the hum of machinery became the heartbeat of cities, and factories, with their towering smokestacks, marked the skyline of progress.

Scientific advancements during the Industrial Revolution were nothing short of revolutionary. The steam engine roared to life, powering locomotives that stitched countries together with iron tracks and steamships that bridged oceans. Innovations in metallurgy produced stronger, more resilient materials, laying the groundwork for modern engineering. Chemistry saw leaps forward with the development of new industrial processes, transforming raw materials into the building blocks of a burgeoning world.

Literature of this era was equally transformative, capturing the essence of a society in flux. Charles Dickens and Elizabeth Gaskell painted vivid portraits of the times, their novels serving as both mirrors and critiques of industrial society. Dickens' "Hard Times" delved into the grim realities of factory life, while Gaskell's "North and South" explored the stark contrasts between the industrial North and the rural South of England. Their works humanized the industrial landscape, giving voice to the struggles and hopes of the working class.

Industrial Revolution

A Period of Thriving Change

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In the crucible of the industrial revolution, amidst the clang of machinery and the roar of steam engines, a new era of scientific discovery dawned. It was a time of unprecedented innovation, as minds both brilliant and bold turned their gaze towards the frontiers of knowledge, forever altering the course of human history.

From the laboratories of chemists to the workshops of inventors, the industrial revolution witnessed a flurry of scientific marvels and inventions that would shape the world for centuries to come. In the realm of medicine, breakthrough in sanitation and hygiene revolutionized public health, saving countless lives and laying the groundwork for modern medicine as we know it. Meanwhile, the field of chemistry experienced a renaissance of its own, as pioneers such as Antoine Lavoisier unlocked the secrets of the elements and transformed our understanding of the natural world. Concurrently, literature flourished, reflecting social changes. Romantic poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge celebrated nature, contrasting industrialization, while novels like Shelley's "Frankenstein" examined the ethical impacts of scientific progress. Realist authors such as Dickens highlighted social injustices faced by the working class, capturing the era's hopes and challenges.

The term 'Industrial Revolution' was used by European scholars-Georges Michelet in France and Friedrich Engels in Germany. It was used for the first time in English by the philosopher and economist Arnold Toynbee(1852-83), to describe the changes that occured in British industrial development between 1760 and 1820.

Benjamin Franklin flying kite in an attempt to collect electricity from lightning

Electricity

The first reference to electricity can be traced back to 600 BCE when ancient greek philosopher Thales of Miletus(c. 620 B.C.E.-c. 546 B.C.E.) recorded that light materials were attracted to rubbed amber. He called materials like amber, glass, etc., 'electricks' after the Greek word for amber, 'elecktron'. Later, acclaimed 16th century physicist William Gilbert became the first to use phrase 'electric force.'

The next notable achievement was German scientist Otto von Guericke's invention of the first electric generator in the mid-17th century. By the Second Industrial Revolution, electric power surpassed steam in its use. The pioneers of electricity were plenty and their inventions transformed the lives.

Benjamin Franklin

The one who gave America its Constitution in 1787. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin, tried to collect electricity from lightning by flying a kite near thunderclouds. The kite was attached to a conductive wire; and to the wet kite string, a silk ribbon was tied along with a metal key that was connected to a Leyden jar. When Franklin moved his hand near the key, he got a shock. This led to the realisation that lightning could be diverted to the ground to prevent it from causing casualties. 

After the experiment, Franklin invented the lightning rod, a device designed to protect buildings and ships from lightning strikes by providing a path for the electric discharge to safely reach the ground. This invention greatly reduced the damage caused by lightning and saved many lives and properties. Further, his work inspired research into electricity. Scientists across Europe and America, including Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and James  Clerk Maxwell, expanded on Franklin's findings, leading to the development of batteries, electric motors, and the formulation of the laws of electromagnetism.

Voltage

In 1799, Alessandro Volta gave the world the concept of Volt (V), the unit of measurement of electromotive force. He came up with it while inventing the electric battery. Belgian Zenobe Gramme conceived the dynamo, also called magneto, which was the first generator, in 1868. In the same year, the first hydroelectric power station became operational in Switzerland, and in 1891, the first high-voltage line was built between Lauffen and Frankfurt in Germany. Simultaneously, between the 19th and 20th centuries, Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla invented alternating current (AC) motors, generators, and transformers as well as the Tesla coil used in radios, televisions and other electronic equipment.

Electric Generator 

In 1831, British scientist Michael Faraday successfully passed an electric current through a wire coil between two magnet poles, and by the next year, an electrical generator was built on this principle. This was a crucial step in our understanding of electromagnetism.

Another important discovery was the Ohm's Law, used to measure electrical current, in 1927 by Georg Simon Ohm. This eventually became the basis of the electric motor and the electric generator or dynamo.

Chemicals 

The chemical industry saw the invention and large-scale production of chemicals right from the start of the Industrial Revolution. In 1635, John Winthrop Ir. became the first to open a chemical company in Boston to produce potassium nitrate. A century later, a series of inventions made chemical manufacturing a booming industry.

Early Advancements

One of the earliest and most impactful developments was in the production of sulfuric acid. In 1736, John Roebuck's enhancement of the lead chamber process significantly lowered costs and increased production volumes. This sulfuric acid became a cornerstone for various industries, including textiles, metallurgy, and chemicals, fueling further industrial growth.

The alkali industry also saw groundbreaking advancements. In 1791, Nicolas Leblanc patented a method for converting common salt into soda ash, which was essential for the production of glass, soap, and textiles.

By the early 19th century, large-scale soda ash plants, such as James Muspratt's facility established in Liverpool in 1822, began to dominate the landscape. He established a sulphuric acid plant, and afterwards installed the Leblanc process, in Vauxhall Road. In 1828, in partnership with Josiah Gamble, he built an alkali works at Newton in Lancashire.

Electrochemistry advanced rapidly during this period, largely due to the pioneering work of Sir Humphry Davy between 1807 and 1810. Davy's use of electrolysis to isolate elements such as potassium and sodium not only expanded the understanding of chemical elements but also paved the way for future industrial applications, including electroplating and the development of batteries.

Safety Lamp was also invented by him in the year 1815. It was created to be used in the coal mines and consisted of wick lamp along with a flame enclosed inside a mesh screen.

Chemistry takes off

the Royal Institution was founded in London in 1799, providing a platform for scientists like Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday to conduct research and public demonstrations. Davy's isolation of elements such as potassium and sodium using electrolysis, and Faraday's work on electromagnetism and electrochemistry, were pivotal in linking theoretical chemistry with practical applications.

The first chemical engineering curriculum was introduced at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1888, reflecting the growing need for specialized knowledge in industrial processes. chemical engineering was introduced as an undergraduate programme of four years, called Course X. It was a combined course of mechanical engineering and industrial chemistry. training students to solve problems in engineering, especially those related to the use and manufacture of chemicals and their products.

In 1918, Fritz Haber received the Nobel Prize for the synthesis of ammonia which German chemist Carl Bosh put to commercial use in 1930.

Banking and Financial Institutions 

The three banking tiers in existence at that point in England comprised the Central Bank of England established in 1694, 30 private banks preferred by traders and industrialists, and 12 county banks. Prior to 1750, copper was used for daily transactions, and gold and silver for major opes. Commercial bills and paper money too were in existence. By 1750, private banks kept growing, in terms of both status and business.

Development 

Increasing business opportunities and the resultant wealth brought with them the need to deposit the earnings in one place and also acquire loans for building equipment and infrastructure for factories, railways and canals. This gave rise to specialist banks that catered to certain industries. The merchants supplied some of the circulated capital. Some of it came trom the aristocrats who had acquired money from land and estates and were now keen on increasing their wealth by Investing and assisting others. They were able to supply land, capital and infrastructure.

By 1800 England had 70 private banks and 24 county banks. But the Napoleonic Wars scared the public and led to a mass withdrawal of money, till the government passed a rule stating that only paper notes, not gold, could be withdrawn. The Country Bankers Act of 1826 put a limit on the issuance of notes, and many banks had to make their own notes. This resulted in the formation of joint-stock companies. The end of the 19th century saw the merger of many localised banks.

Experiments in Cement

In the year 1757, engineer John Smeaton observed that good quality lime had a high amount of clay. Two years later, while building the third Eddystone Lighthouse at the Cornwall coast in Southwestern England, Smeaton found that mixing leftover clay, lime, and crushed slag from the iron-making process created a mortar that became hard when left to set under water. Smeaton's discovery motivated builders in England to come up with better quality cement.

British bricklayer-turned-builder Joseph Aspdin created a new type of cement in 1824 by firing clay and limestone till they calcined. He patented this cement and called it Portland cement because the concrete it produced looked very similar to the Portland stone that was often used to construct buildings in England. Portland cement became so popular that famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel used it to construct the Thames Tunnel in 1843. Two years later, Isaac Johnson improved the cement's quality by firing a mixture of chalk and clay at close to 1400° C-1500° C, which is what is used today.

Advancements in Medicine 

Before the Industrial Revolution, bacterial (plague), viral (smallpox), and waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid, and typhus) wiped out large chunks of the population. As urbanisation and industrialisation increased and the populations in cities grew, so did slums and poverty. The living and working conditions of the people worsened and there were further outbreaks of disease. However, the Industrial Revolution also brought many scientific breakthroughs in modern medicine. It improved the production of stethoscopes, scalpels, microscope lenses, test tubes, etc., and introduced vaccines, new cures, and treatments.

In 1776

One of the most notable figures was Edward Jenner, who developed the first successful smallpox vaccine in 1776. Jenner observed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox did not catch smallpox. He tested his theory by inoculating a young boy, James Phipps, with material from a cowpox sore and later exposed him to smallpox. Phipps did not develop the disease, demonstrating the vaccine's effectiveness. This innovation dramatically reduced smallpox mortality and laid the groundwork for modern immunology.

In 1816

René Laennec invented the stethoscope. Before this invention, physicians had to put their ear on the patient's chest, used to be awkward for both the parties, and even produced inaccuracies in diagnosis as the internal sounds were muffled.

In 1846

In 1846, anesthesia revolutionized surgery. William T.G. Morton, a dentist in Boston, Massachusetts, successfully demonstrated the use of ether as an anesthetic during a public operation at Massachusetts General Hospital. This breakthrough allowed for longer and more complex surgical procedures by rendering patients unconscious and free from pain.

In 1867

In the 1860s, Joseph Lister, Father of Antiseptic Surgery, a British surgeon, pioneered the use of carbolic acid (phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and clean wounds. Lister was influenced by Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease, which proposed that microorganisms cause infections. Lister's methods drastically reduced postoperative infections and mortality rates, leading to the widespread adoption of antiseptic surgery.

In 1895

In the field of medical imaging, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen's discovery of X-rays in 1895 in Würzburg, Germany, marked a revolutionary advancement. Roentgen noticed that these rays could pass through human tissue but not bones, allowing for the visualization of the skeletal system. X-rays quickly became an essential diagnostic tool, transforming medical diagnosis and treatment.

Electric Telegraph 

Telegraph 

The electric telegraph was the first electronic mode of communication that improved the delivery of letters. Prior to this, the Pony Express (a continuous relay of men on horseback delivering the mail) was the go-to mode of communication, and it would take 10 days to deliver a letter from Sacramento to Missouri.

Early Developments 

The concept of the telegraph began to take shape in the early 19th century. In 1809, Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, a German scientist, created an early electrical telegraph that used multiple wires to transmit messages.

First Commercial Telegraph 

The first successful commercial telegraph was created by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England. They patented their design in 1837, which used multiple wires and needles to indicate letters.

Samuel Morse and the Morse Code

Samuel Morse, an American artist and inventor, developed a more practical and efficient single-wire telegraph system. On January 11, 1838, Morse demonstrated telegraph for the first time to the public.

On May 24, 1844, Morse sent the first long-distance telegraph message, "What hath God wrought," from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, Maryland. This event marked the telegraph's successful application for long-distance communication.

Alongside his invention, Morse, with the help of his associate Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code, a system of dots and dashes that represented letters and numbers, making it possible to transmit complex messages efficiently.

Samuel Morse's innovations and the successful implementation of his telegraph system marked the beginning of the telegraph era, revolutionizing communication by enabling rapid, long-distance transmission of information. This invention had a profound impact on business, journalism, and personal communication, paving the way for future technological advancements in communication.

The Glass Industry

The pace of glassmaking increased in 1635 when Sir Robert Maxwell began to use coal instead of wood, and glass industries no longer had to be based in forest areas. Several technological advancements from Germany and England brought glass production up to a level where it could be called an 'industry.

Inventions in Glass

In 1851, one of the earliest uses of glass in structures was at the Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition in London, where 3,00,000 glass panes were used as panels Around 1900. American inventor Michael Owens created the automatic bottle- blowing machine that produced 2,500 bottles per hour in 1923, the gob feeder was developed to supply consistently sized gobs in bottle production. Then, in 1925, the IS (Individual Section) machine was developed to work with gob feeders The combination of an IS machine with the gob feeder that produces many bottles in one go is the crux of most automatic glass-container production today. 

Float Glass

In the 1960s, Sir Alastair Pilkington's 'float' method of glassmaking was a revolution in the glass industry. He was looking for a more economical way of making high-quality glass that could be used for mirrors, shop windows, cars, and other applications where the requirement was distortion- free glass. The success of the Pilkington's method is based upon the careful balance of the volume of glass fed onto the bath, where it is flattened according to its height. Sir Alastair Pilkington's float glass method is used by 90 per cent of flat glass manufacturers even today.

Graham Bell opening telephone line between New York and Chicago

Telephone

Till 1877, the telegraph was the only reliable source of long- distance communication. In the same year, several scientists were working on a new and effective way of communicating over long distances-the telephone. Alexander Graham Bell, who began his research in 1874, managed to win the first US patent for the telephone in 1876.

By 1879, the telephone had grown so popular that Western Union and the telephone system reached an agreement to operate as two separate services. Earlier in 1853, French professor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville, who was also a teacher of the deaf and mute, thought about 'electronic speech' and invented the phonautograph, which recognised the vibrations of speech.

Father of Telephone 

Innovation 

Scottish-born inventor Alexander Graham Bell is widely credited with inventing the first practical telephone. On March 10, 1876, Bell successfully transmitted the first intelligible sentence, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you," to his assistant Thomas Watson, using a liquid transmitter.

Patent

Bell filed a patent for his invention on February 14, 1876, and was awarded U.S. Patent No. 174,465 on March 7, 1876. This patent became one of the most valuable and contested patents in history.

Other Inventions 

While Bell patented the telephone first, American inventor Elisha Grey had also created prototypes of the same. The two inventors fought a long battle over taking credit, but Bell won. In 1849, Italian immigrant Antonio Meucci designed the telephone and, in 1871, even filed a caveat to announce his invention. Unfortunately, Meucci could not afford to renew the caveat and so his contribution to the discovery was not considered. But on 11 June 2002, the United States House of Representatives honoured Meucci's inventions.

The Lucas Oil Gusher at Spindletop Hill (an oil field), South of Beaumont, Texas, USA

Fossil Fuels

Even before the potential of coal was discovered during the Industrial Revolution, oil and natural gas had long been in use, largely as a fuel for lamps and as grease for vehicles and equipment.

OIL

In 1853, one of the first oil wells was drilled in a forest near Böbrka, Poland in the same year, Ignacy Lukasiewicz, a Polish pharmacist and a rock-oil mine owner was the first to distil kerosene from oil; he also invented the kerosene lamp It was found that although steam engines were efficient, they were slow starters, quite costly and could only be produced in small numbers Petroleum-based fuel didn't have all these drawbacks Moreover, the mass production of automobiles in the early 20 century increased the demand for petrol, and this fuelled the oil industry.

Kerosene In US

It was a merchant, John Austin, who introduced kerosene to the USA. He noticed a cost-effective oil lamp while travelling in Austria, and produced an upgraded version of it in the USA. This led to a boom in the country's rock-oil industry, as the prices of whale oil had already escalated because of the decrease in the number of these mammals. Suddenly, oil prices collapsed as production and refining increased. In 1859, an entrepreneur, Samuel Downer Jr. patented 'kerosene' as a trading name and put a licence on its use.

Gas lamp manually lit

Lighting

Gas and kerosene lamps were the only source of artificial lighting till the early part of the Industrial Revolution, but their popularity declined in the next 50 years, after the invention of the electric light bulb during 1878-79.

Gas Lighting and Electricity 

Gaslight technology evolved in England in the 1790s, and by 1879 people had grown used to the idea of lighting with gas. Gaslight manufacturers started to provide better quality gas and brighter lights. Besides, they had existing infrastructure, while electric lighting required power-generating plants to be built with connecting wires across the entire distance. Edison decided to design his electric lighting system based on the model of the gaslight technology. 

But, unlike the manually operated gas lamps, Edison's electric lighting system was automatic. Then in 1880 came Sir Hiram Maxim's lamp which contained a high-resistance filament It was produced quicker than usual because Maxim hired Edison's expert glassblower, Ludwig Boehm. The United States Electric Lighting Company used the Maxim lamp in their installed electric lighting systems for many years.

Prose and Poetry during Industrial Revolution 

Prose

Many authors were influenced by the Industrial Revolution and wrote stories based on the lives of working-class people and the oppression and injustices they experienced in industrial England. A new genre of writing known as the 'industrial novel emerged, it dealt with the lives of the workers. Authors used their works to portray how, although on the surface society looked like it was progressing, the poor and working classes experienced severe hardships. 

Child labour was common in factories and mines, moreover the working conditions were in such a dismal state that it often put their lives at high risk. Authors contributed to bring about change by highlighting the plight of this particular strata, eventually the society and government took notice and worked towards their upliftment; laws were passed and changes were made to improve the lives of the working class as well as of women and children.

Charles Dickens

In his famous classic Oliver Twist, English author Charles Dickens depicted the harsh living conditions during this time in history. The Pickwick Papers, Hard Times, A Christmas Carol, and David Copperfield are some of his works that reflect his own experiences while working at a blacking factory. His works justly portrays the horrid conditions of the working class in the light of his own experiences. He openly wrote about the treatment of children across England. His stories focus on social injustices and upon people whose life was ravaged by poverty during the Industrial Revolution.

Elizabeth Gaskell

She was a famous female author from the mid-1800s. Belonging to England's Manchester-a city that was an industrial powerhouse known for its cotton-she wrote North and South. The novel set in the fictional industrial town of Milton, this novel explores the contrasts between the industrial North and the rural South of England. It delves into themes of social class, labor relations, and the impact of industrialization on communities.

Thomas Carlyle 

Past and Present" (1843): Carlyle's work reflects on the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution and critiques the materialism and social inequality of the time. He emphasizes the importance of spiritual and moral values amidst the rapid industrial and technological advancements.

Poetry

Child labour, the plight of the working class, the destruction THE of nature, etc., were some of the consequences of the Industrial Revolution that led many poets like William Blake, Percy Shelley, John Keats, and William Wordsworth to criticise the revolution. Some of them felt that it had caused more harm than good, and they called upon the people of Great Britain to remember the times when industrialisation and urbanisation had not spread across the country.

William Wordsworth 

Industrialisation lead to an increase in the number of factones and the need for more labour Many people moved to the cities for jobs. But the workers were underpaid and lived in small houses with poor living conditions They no longer lived near nature but in polluted cities. 

William Wordsworth was a poet famous for his love for nature Although the Industrial Revolution did solve some problems, he felt that it violated the relationship between humans and the environment in many ways In response to the effect of the industrial Revolution on nature. William Wordsworth, in his poem Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey, recalls happier times spent in nature as compared to the lonely rooms and din of towns and cities.

William Blake

Labour laws prevalent at the time of the industrial Revolution allowed children to work They were discriminated against and paid much tower wages than those received by adults. They had to work for long hours and some of them even began working as early as age four William Blake's poem, The Chimney Sweeper, from his collection Songs of Innocence and Experience, is about the injustice suffered by child chimney sweeps Blake explains the sad lives of innocent children who on the pretext of their small size, were forced to climb up the chimney's and clean them.

Effect of Revolution on the Society 

Industrialisation and urbanisation led to increased demands for greater social welfare, labour rights, education, equality, and political rights. In 1807, the African slave trade was abolished in America. In 1832, the British Great Reform Act was passed, which saw the representation of the manufacturing cities of Birmingham and Manchester for the first time. causing a change in the organisation of the parliament and governance.

The costs of clothes, tools and household items reduced due to mass production Employment opportunities rose as new factories were constructed and the need for manpower required to operate the machines increased Factory employees earned more than farmers People were no longer dependent on their farms for income. The growing middle class now had access to economic power that, till now, was held by aristocrats.

Industrialisation led to a change in the nature of work as well as manufacturing, and encouraged specialisation. Teachers and trainers were hired to impart specialised skills. Workers were divided into groups. Some had to transport raw materials such as coal, iron and steel. Some handled the functions of different machines, others repaired them, and still others upgraded or improved their efficiency. 

Work was divided in this manner and each department gained expertise in particular areas Specialised departments handled sanitation, traffic, and taxation. The significance of specialised professionals such as lawyers, builders, physicians, and others increased as well.

Pitfalls

The Industrial Revolution, despite its many advancements and contributions to modern society, also had significant pitfalls that impacted individuals and communities.

Young children were employed for long hours in dangerous environs at very low salaries by textile mills and factories. In the early 1860s, one-fifth of Britain's textile industry had workers younger than 15 years of age. Factory workers had to toil 14-16 hours per day, 6 times a week. Men earned twice the amount women did, and children earned even lower. The working conditions, especially in the mines, were dangerous. Unskilled workers had no job security Machines replaced craftspeople. Most machines were dirty, produced soot and smoke, and their use caused many ailments and accidents resulting in death and injuries.

Use of tractors, trains and automobiles certainly made life easy With the rise of automation, various professions became sedentary and the invention of the TV and the radio gave rise to 'couch potato culture. This way of life has led to an array of lifestyle diseases including obesity, diabetes, and hypertension.

Environmental degradation was another significant pitfall. Industrial activities resulted in severe air and water pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources. Factories emitted pollutants that harmed both the environment and public health, and the extensive use of coal contributed to pervasive smog and respiratory problems in industrial cities. While coal was responsible for kick-starting the Industrial Revolution and changing the way people utilised energy, it eventually had an ill-effect on the environment and, in turn, the health of all living beings Air and water pollution, loss of flora and fauna, and global warming are considered to be the ghastly after-effects of industrialisation. Before 1750, atmospheric carbon dioxide existed in concentrations of 275 to 290 parts per million by volume (ppmv). It had crossed 400 ppmv by 2017.

Legacy

The rapid industrialization resulted in environmental degradation, with widespread pollution and resource depletion. Despite these challenges, the era spurred progress in science with innovations in chemistry, physics, and engineering, and influenced literature profoundly. Authors like Charles Dickens and Elizabeth Gaskell depicted the social realities and inequalities of industrial life, advocating for social reform. The Industrial Revolution was a pivotal era that reshaped the modern world, bringing both remarkable progress and significant challenges, whose effects continue to be felt today.

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